Atomic - Pacific War, part 3

"The world is what it is, which isn't much."


"We can sum it all up in one sentence: the civilization of the machine has just achieved its ultimate degree of savagery."

Both of these quotes come from the author, journalist and editor Albert Camus (1913-1960)  in the French revolutionary newspaper Combat in 1945 and refer to the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima. They were published August 8, 1945, two days after Hiroshima, one day before the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.

After Saipan was conquered American forces were able to send bombers not only over factory and industrial centres, but civilian ones as well. From March 1945 334 bombers attacked Tokyo - destroying over a quarter of the city, killing 83,793 civilians, wounding 40,918 and leaving millions homeless. "By the end of the war sixty-six cities had been attacked from the air and sea." (Japan: A Short History, Misiko Hane, p172).
The poor citizens of Okinawa suffered the wrath of both the Japanese and the Americans as being "hostile" and over one hundred thousand Okinawan civilians died.

The Japanese not only suffered human losses. They lost essential raw materials to the tune of 4 million metric tonnes and 44 million tonnes of crude and refined oil. The entire economy of Japan was miniscule compared the US and the latter did everything they could to cripple it further. And they succeeded. The protracted war and huge losses meant that Japan's economy was in real trouble, even before these devastating air raids.

The Japanese began to think of ways to end the war. In May 1945 the Germans, Japanese allies, surrendered and everything looked even more ominous.

The Allies offered a series of ultimatums for surrender, under the Potsdam Declaration, which the Japanese ignored. President Truman took these as a total rejection and ordered the use of the nuclear bomb.

"On the morning of August 6 the bomber Enola Gay flew over Hiroshima and dropped an atomic bomb with a force of twenty thousand tons of TNT on the center of the city...The victims, those who died instantly and those who died of radiation soon after, numbered about 140,000." (Japan: A Short History, Hane, p174)

                                         Source: UCLA
 

As Camus so eloquently put it - and he was one of the very few journalists world wide to offer such a condemning view on the use of the bomb - it was "the ultimate degree of savagery."


As an historian and as a human, I have to ask why, given the facts outlined in these posts on the war in the Pacific, would America drop the bomb?? Any ideas?
 
Sources:
"Japan: A Short History" Misiko Hane, Oneworld Publishing, 2000
"Camus at Combat: Writing 1944-1947," edited by Jacqueline Lévi-Valensi, Princeton University Press, 2006

The Potsdam Declaration

"On July 26 [1945] the United States, Great Britain and China issued the Potsdam Declaration calling on Japan to end the war on the basis of unconditional surrender. The terms called for elimination from authority those responsible for the war; occupation of Japan; limitation of Japanese sovereignty to the Japanese islands; complete disarmament; punishment of war crimes; political reform; and restriction on Japanese industries."

- "Japan: A Short History," Misiko Hane, Oneworld Publications, 2000.

The Pacific War, part 2

As mentioned in the previous post, Japan and America found themselves at war after Japan aggressively attacked the American Pacific naval base, Pearl Harbour.

So what exactly happened after Pearl Harbour??

Guam, Wake Island, and Hong Kong fell to the Japanese by late December 1941.Singapore fell on February 15, 1942. The Dutch gave way to the aggressive powers of Japan in March 1942 and surrendered the Dutch East Indies. The Japanese still had further Pacific nations in their sight, and this expansion resulted in the Battle of the Coral Sea (May 8, 1942), and the unsuccessful Battle of Midway (June '42). After Midway the Japanese turned back. They then went on to suffer losses and defeats in the Solomon Islands (August '42), the Guadalcanal (forced Japanese withdrawal in February 1943) and later New Guinea (May 1943). The Americans, under General MacArthur also wanted to free the Phillipines from Japanese control.

On the continent, Japan was also suffering losses to the allies (America and Britain) in Burma and in the Chinese War. A million Japanese troops were stationed in China, and over two hundred thousand died during the Burma campaign (October '44-May '45). Unlike the bigger nations, Japan's servicemen weren't unlimited and these losses were costing the Japanese heavily. The tough Japanese spirit was exhibited during the Battle of Saipan (ending July 1944), where the determined forces fought to the bitter end, conducting banzai (Suicidal) charges. This notion of never surrendering or becoming prisoners of war, sadly, also gained momentum amongst the civilian population and over ten thousand civilians committed suicide at the soldiers' urgings.

The Japanese also experienced the devastating loss of Tinian and Guam, both strategic naval and air bases. It was fron Tinian that the planes that dropped the Atomic bombs took off. These losses also put Tokyo at great risk. This battle for key islands on the way to Japan continued. By June 1944 the Japanese had lost 250,000 soldiers whereas the Americans had lost 8,140 and another 29,557 wounded.

Iwo Jima was another strategic island which the Americans gained control over in March 1945. War in Europe was drawing to a close and it seemed as though the Americans (and their allies) were gaining the upper hand in the Pacific. What then, led to the Atomic Bomb???

The Pacific War, part 1

World War 2 ended in Europe in May 1945, however the war in the Pacific was just getting started.


Japan had been involved in the "China Incident" (as they referred to it) since the 1930s. After the great depression, which hit the country hard, Japan was on an expansionist mission. Its leaders had their sights set on gaining access to the Dutch East Indies (Indochina) for its petroleum.

By 1940 Japan's intended allies, Russia and Germany, had dissolved their alliance. Japan tried to persuade Russia to join the triple alliance (Germany, Italy and Japan) but only succeeded in achieving a neutrality pact with the Soviets.

During this time, Japan was having (as was to be expected) trouble with the United States of America. Their main issues included, Japan's alliance with Germany and Japan's involvement in China. In 1940 80% of Japan's oil (which kept its navy afloat, so to speak) came from the USA. "Without access to the major source of oil the Japanese navy's oil reserves were expected to last two years, and a year and a half if Japan were to engage in a full-scale war." ("Japan: A Short History", Mikiso Hane, p162). Once the US placed an oil embargo on Japan, the countdown began.

This was a key reason as to why the military leaders of Japan wanted to gain access to the oil reserves of Indochina. The USA, under President Roosevelt and Secretary Hull,  and Japan were unable to come to terms of agreement regarding the China Incident and Japan's involvement in South East Asia. The Japanese Emperor, Hirohito, wanted to continue diplomatic discussions, however the new Prime Minister (and former War Minister) Tojo was a militarist.

Japan decided that December 8 would be the date for war to be launched in an all out attack on Pearl Harbour, an American base. Remember that the Japanese could not possibly continue a long-scale war (do to the oil embargo) therefore they hoped to have the upper hand by planning the surprise attack on Pearl Harbour. This attack, from a Japanese standpoint, proved to be a success - 18 American naval vessels heavily damagesd, approx. 350 planes destroyed, 2403 Americans dead, 1178 wounded, in comparison to Japanese losses of 29 planes and about 100 casualties.

From a strategic point of view, it was a disaster as now the "beast had been woken" and the otherwise "isolationist" America found itself in a full-fledged war.

Sources:
"Japan: A Short History," Misiko Hane, Oneworld Publications, 2000

Hermann Goering

I seem to be on a bit of a WWII kick this week, so to add to the post on Vichy France here is a quote from German politician Hermann Goering. He was a member of the Nazi Party, and this quote shows well that party's policy of control and manipulation. This quote comes from during the Nuremberg trials after WWII.

“Naturally the common people don’t want war; neither in Russia, nor in England, nor in America, nor in Germany. That is understood. But after all, it is the leaders of the country who determine policy, and it is always a simple matter to drag the people along, whether it is a democracy, or a fascist dictatorship, or a parliament, or a communist dictatorship. …Voice or no voice, the people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is to tell them they are being attacked, and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same in any country.”

Gustav Giblert: Nuremberg Diaries
 

Goering committed suicide in 1946 just two hours before his execution.

Vichy France

On June 14, 1940 Paris fell to the Germans. The French government were divided on whether or not to keep fighting or to surrender and call for peace. Premier Paul Reynaud wanted to keep fighting, however General Maxim Weygand and vice premier Marshal Phillipe Petain insisted on calling an armistice. Petain succeeded Reynaud as premier and quickly asked the Germans for a cease-fire.

A jubilant Hitler travelled to Paris and announced that his terms of an armistice included German occupation of two-thirds of France including Paris and all of the Atlantic Coast. The French got to keep the rest of the country, except for those few places where the Italians (under the direction of Benito Mussolini, Hitler’s ally) had captured during their invasion. The French re-established a government in the resort town of Vichy, the new capital of un-occupied France. This leads to the term Vichy French.

However, luckily for the French, there was one more who refused to give up. His name was Charles de Gaulle. And from the safety of London he was able to organise a “Free France” military force, with himself as leader. The Vichy French government were now German allies and the collaboration of De Gaulle's liberation force and the resistance fighters who remained in Paris led to the liberation of France from German occupation on 19 August 1944. The Vichy French government were exiled to Sigmaringen in Germany. 

Source: World War II: An Expanded History, prepared by Theodore A. Wilson, with excerpts from World War II: A Short History, by Michael. J. Lyons, Pearson Custom Publishing, 2000

Leaders and Rulers

                                      Ludovico Sforza, Zanetto Bugatto

During the mid-1300's and early 1400's, a number of major Italian cities came under the control of one family. For example, the Visconti family governed Milan from the early 1300's until 1447, when the last male member died. Soon after, the Sforza family took control of Milan and governed the city until the late 1400's. Other ruling families in Italy included the Este family in Ferrara, the Gonzaga family in Mantua, and the Montefeltro family in Urbino.

The form of government established by the ruling families of the Italian cities was called the signoria, and the chief official was known as the signore. All power was concentrated in the signore and his friends and relatives. An elaborate court slowly grew up around each signorial government. At the court, the area's leading artists, intellectuals, and politicians gathered under the sponsorship of the signore.

Other Italian cities had a form of government known as republicanism. In republican cities, a ruling class controlled the government. Members of the ruling class considered themselves superior to the other residents of the city. The most important examples of republican government were in Florence and Venice.

In the republican government of Florence, about 800 of the city's wealthiest families made up the ruling class. The members of these Florentine families intermarried and lived in large, beautiful palaces built by Renaissance architects. They paid for the construction of great religious and civic buildings and impressive monuments throughout Florence. They also supported artists and intellectuals. In addition, the ruling class encouraged the study of ancient Greek and Roman authors in the desire to have their society resemble the cultures of classical antiquity.

 
Cosimo de Medici, Jacopo da Pontormo, 1519

By the 1430's, the Medici family dominated the ruling class of Florence. The family controlled the largest bank in Europe and was headed by a series of talented and ambitious men. Under Medici domination, the government of Florence resembled a signorial government.

About 180 families controlled the republican government of Venice. All government leaders came from these families. A law passed in 1297 restricted membership in the Great Council, the principal governing body, to descendants of families that had already sat in the council. Like Florence, Venice became a leading center of Renaissance art under the support of the ruling class.

Attica

                                     Arcadia, Thomas Eakins, c1883

"There is perhaps no part of Europe, which more deservedly...excites the curiosity of the Lovers of polite Literature than...Attica, and Athens its Capital City: whether we reflect on the Figure it makes in History, on account of the excellent men it has produced in every Art...or whether we consider the Antiquities which are said to be still remaining there...the most perfect Models of what is excellent in Sculpture and Architecture."

 - James Stuart and Nicholas Revett, in  The Victorians and Ancient Greece, R.Jenkins, Harvard University Press, 1980

The Renaissance

If you don't know what the term renaissance  refers to you may find many of the festivals and fairs that dot the western world all year round slightly confusing. They may also be in the Eastern world but at the time of writing I am unaware of any.
So just so you don't seem like a nincompoop at said fairs, here's a little taster of the Renaissance. Simply drop some of these names and facts and you should be alright. Well, left alone at least.

The Renaissance traditionally refers to the cultural, philosophical and social movement that began in Florence at the end of the 14th century (after the Black Death) and continued sometime until the middle of the 16th century. It spread through the rest of Italy, France, Germany, the Netherlands, England and parts of Spain.

The term itself is French and means reborn. In Italian reborn is il rinascimento. What was being reborn was the art, history, philosophy and attitude of the classical age of Greece and Rome. After the Dark Ages (or the Middle Ages, a term I prefer because if you look deeply they really weren't so dark as their reputation implies) Europe underwent a massive shift in thought and culture which permeated then through all aspects of society.

 The Birth of Venus - Sandro Botticelli c1485-7

The rediscovery of texts and manuscripts from Greece (especially after the Fall of Constantinople in 1453) and those from the Middle East (where society was undoubtably more advanced and sophisticated during the Middle Ages) brought a lot of new, and old, ideas to Europe.

Some of the key characters who were interested in this transformation and contributed to it (either willingly or unwillingly) include:

Writers - Dante, Petrarch, Boccaccio
Artists - Giotto, Sandro Bottecelli, Michelangelo Buonarotti, Donatello, Rafael, Leonardo de Vinci (yes, the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles were actually named after quite important people). There are of course many more but this is only meant to be an appetiser, not the whole main course.
Leaders - Cosimo de Medici (Florence), Lorenzo de Medici (Florence), the Sforza family - notably Ludovico and Caterina (Milan), the Este family (Ferrara, and other parts of Veneto), Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand  - of the Spanish Inquisition fame (Spain), Phillip II of Spain (Spain, Naples, Portugal), Henry VIII (England), Elizabeth I (England)
Religious Movers and Shakers - Savonarola, Martin Luther, Sir Thomas More
Popes  -  Pope Innocent VIII, Alexander VI, Julius II, Leo X
Scientists - Nicolaus Copernicus (good old Copperknickers - sorry couldn't resist), Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Galilei
Political Commentators  - Machiavelli

The Sistine Chapel (Ceiling) - Michelangelo, 1508-1512

Alright, this plate of hors d'oeuvres is starting to overflow a bit here, and as my aim is simply to whet your appetitie I'm going to stop here. Keep tuned though as I'm sure some of those mentioned here will bubble up into their own tasty portions.

Cleopatra

It seems only fitting that today with the passing of Elizabeth Taylor we should look at the historical figure made famous by this lovely actress:

Cleopatra VII.

Cleopatra VII Philopator was born 69BC and died in 30BC. If we consider then that her brief life has lasted so long in our minds as glorious and perhaps infamous it is because she truly was a wonderous creature in her time.

Egyptian history is broken up into different time periods:
Old Kingdom
Middle Kingdom
New Kingdom
Late Period
Greco-Roman Period

Cleopatra belonged to the Greco-Roman Period and was the last ruler of the Ptolemaic family. She is believed to have been a very intelligent and charming ruler, speaking Greek (as did all the Ptolemies before her) but Egyptian as well. These qualities made her a formidable ruler as opposed to her beauty. Images found on coins from the time show us that she wasn't much of a looker at all really (which is why I chose the stunning, easily recognisable image of Ms Taylor). But then other sources contest that she did have great physical and sexual appeal and it is merely our perception of beauty over time that has changed. I guess we'll never know.

Known for her love affairs with the Roman statesman Julius Caesar and his political successor Mark Antony, Cleopatra bore the former a son, Caesarion, and a son Ptolemy Philadelphus and twins, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene to the latter.

Cleopatra and Mark Antony fought to keep Egypt an independent state, but they lost the important sea battle at Actium to Octavian, Caesar's adopted son. Octavian later became the Emperor Augustus and Egypt became a Roman occupied territory.

After Mark Antony's death Cleopatra committed suicide by the venom of a snake, possibly asp or cobra - depending on the sources.

Her infamy today is due, I think, to Elizabeth Taylor's famous portrayal in the movie of the same name in 1963 and I think the charismatic queen would have been pleased with the depiction. Don't you?

Source: Egypt: The World of the Pharaohs, ed R. Schulz and M. Seidel, Konemann

Quote: Alcmaeon of Croton - c500BC

'About what is invisible, about what is mortal, the gods have clear knowledge, but to us as men, only inference on what is coming is possible.'

Quote: Thucydides

'It will be enough for me, however, if these words of mine are judged useful by those who want to understand clearly the events which happened in the past and which (human nature being what it is) will, at some time or other and in much the same ways, be repeated in the future. My work is not a piece of writing designed to meet the taste of an immediate public, but was done to last forever.' 

 Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War,  I:22

An Introduction: History Bites

I heard the term today "Short Attention Span History" and it made me smile. And so I made this blog.

My main areas of interest in history are the Italian Renaissance and Ancient Greece. I am also interested in Victorian England, the Middle Ages, Latin American history ( pre and post-conquistadors), and 20th century History. Any and all of these periods in time (and some I might not have mentioned) may make an appearance on this blog.

The point is KISS - keep it simple stupid.

My entries won't be long, essay-like compositions on history. They will be short, sweet and to the point. They will cover a range of topics from factual dates and events, culture, society, religion, fashion, personalities, quotes, sayings and more.
I will also include links, books and reviews when possible.

I hope you enjoy these tasty tidbits of history and that your intellectual tastebuds are tantalised. If there is anything you are craving, just let me know.

Vincenzo Campi, Il Mangiafagioli